Hiv/Aids Dbq

HIV (Human Immunodeficiency Virus) and AIDS (Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome) are conditions in the human body that cause failure in the immune system leading to life threatening infections and tumors. HIV was first discovered 30 years ago on June 5th, 1981 in a group of young gay men. HIV began to spread through the entire population of people. Since then over 60 million people have been infected with HIV and more than 25 million have died form an AIDS related causes (www. emedicinehealth. com). HIV/AIDS is a big issue, because it’s affecting a large portion of today’s population. Creating a public health plan will help people who have HIV/AIDS, and ones at risk of being infected. With about 40,000 people becoming HIV positive each year, the financial costs for HIV/AIDS continue to increase (www. medicalnewstoday. com). Many individual are not covered by health insurance so they can’t afford the treatment needed(Document 3). For every HIV infection prevented, $355,000 is saved in the costs of providing lifelong HIV care and treatment (www. avert. org). Fundraising is a good way to raise money for HIV/AIDS. Having more HIV/AIDS walks throughout the United States, to raise money and make people aware of the effects it has on the population today would be a good way to raise money, and get people involved. Another good way to raise money would be to hold a telethon on nation television. Distributing flyers, postcards or door knob hangers will educate local residents about what they can do to help. This money will be used to help people with HIV/AIDS to pay for not only their medical bills and therapy, but their education as well. Most people who are putting themselves at risks of being infected with HIV/AIDS don’t know what it is, or how you can catch it. Some of the cancers and infections people can get from HIV/AIDS are Salmonellosis, Tuberculosis, and Lymphomas (Document 2). The low amount of publicity is one of the main reasons why people don’t know about HIV/AIDS. The first time there was ever publicity on this topic was on July 3, 1981 when New York Times published a news story on AIDS (timeline). There should be more advertisement informing people on how they can become infected, and how it is effecting people. Creating a campaign with eye-catching posters and billboards to be used as an educational platform is a good way to inform younger people. News articles posted online or in newspapers will help as well. An individual can become HIV positive by having sexual intercourse with an infected partner, injecting drugs using a needle that has been used by an HIV positive person, or a newborn can catch the virus form the mother during pregnancy, the birthing process, or through breastfeeding (Document 1). Most people don’t know how serious HIV/AIDS are, because they are not well educated on this topic. Every eight seconds someone dies from AIDS (A Closer Walk). Providing young people with basic AIDS education enables them to protect themselves from becoming infected. Peer education would be a great way to inform people on this topic. Peer education is when a group is given information by someone who is a member of the same community, and who has already been trained in the subject. It is proven that people are strongly influenced by the attitudes and actions of others their age. Testing is a very important part of HIV/AIDS. Most people continue to spread it because they don’t know they have it. In the United States, it is likely that 20% of HIV-positive individuals are unaware of their infection. ( www. emedicinehealth. com). It is impossible to tell if an individual is HIV positive just by looking at them (Document 5). The first HIV test licensed by the United States Food and Drug Administration detects antibodies to HIV in 1985(timeline). Testing should be a mandatory thing for all sexually active people. When a yearly physical is performed, HIV/AIDS and other STD’s testing should be done. If someone doesn’t go to the doctor for a yearly physical, most places will test for HIV and AIDS for little or no cost, without knowing any personal information. It is important to get tested, so that the virus doesn’t get spread to anyone else. Of all the countries in the world, America is home to the largest number of people living with HIV (www. vert. org ). Tens of thousands of people are newly infected with HIV in America every year. Creating new ideas for fundraising, publicity, education, and testing, will help lower this number, because people will be aware of the effects HIV and AIDS can cause. Rabbi David Saperstein once said, â€Å"AIDS destroys families, decimates communities and, particularly in the poorest areas of the world, threatens to destabilize the social, cultural, and economic fabric of e ntire nations†¦ â€Å"

Hume natural and artificial virtues Essay

In this essay I will discuss the differences between Hume’s ‘natural’ and ‘artificial’ virtues. I will first give Hume’s explanation of why there is a need for a distinction or classification of virtues, and the basis on which he makes the distinction, before describing the two categories and their criteria. I will look at the problems with Hume’s account of the distinction, particularly justice. Finally I will describe how the various problems cast doubt on Hume’s distinction. Hume’s Virtues and the need to distinguish In discussing the principles from which we determine moral good or evil, virtue or vice, Hume argues that because the number of situations we may encounter is ‘infinite’ it would be absurd to imagine an ‘original instinct’ or individual principle for each possibility. (T3. 1. 2. 6)1 Instead he suggests that, following the usual maxim of nature producing diversity from limited principles, we should look for more general principles. Hume suggests looking for those general principles in nature but cautions on the ambiguous and various senses of the word ‘natural’. (T 3. 1. 2. 7) He says later that ‘the word natural†¦ is of so loose a signification, that it seems vain to dispute, whether justice be natural or not’ (EPM Appx. 3. 9. ) It is important that he clears this up early, the categorisation of several virtues, notably ‘justice’, depends critically on a clear definition. Leaving ‘natural’ open to interpretation would also raise difficulties in placing many of the 70 or more ‘virtues he names. If the virtues could category hop it might cause problems for the idea of having a distinction at all. Having raised this issue he resolves it by describing various senses or contexts in which ‘natural’ could be commonly understood: 1. Nature can be understood as counter to, or ‘oppose’d to’, miracles and if understood in that context then everything, except miracles themselves but including virtue and vice, would be considered natural. (T3. 1. 2. 7) 1All quotes from David Hume are from An Enquiry Concerning the Principles of Morals. ed. Beauchamp T. L. 1st ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998 hereafter abbreviated EPM; A Treatise of Human Nature. ed. Norton, M. and Norton, D. 1st ed. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 2011, hereafter abbreviated T 1 2. Nature may also be understood in opposition to ‘rare and unusual’. Hume notes that ‘rare and unusual’ is imprecise and variable, dependent on observation. Despite this vagueness Hume declares that if anything at all could be called natural in this context it would be the ‘sentiments of morality’ and supports this with the observation that no nation or individual ever showed ‘approbation or dislike of manners’. This ‘moral sense’ is so fundamental that only disease or madness could remove it. (T3. 1. 2. 8) Within this explanation Hume points out that it is ‘unphilosophical’ to conflate, as he suggests some systems do, virtue with natural and vice with unnatural. 3. The third natural context that Hume discusses is in opposition to ‘artifice’. In this context Hume says it is not altogether clear whether virtue is natural or artificial, this can only be discovered on closer inspection of particular vices or virtues. He raises two further distinctions, civil and moral, (T3. 1. 2. fn 70) which will be raised in the course of his argument, but rather than closely define them suggests that ‘the opposition will always discover the sense’, which I take to mean that the correct interpretation of context will give you the type of natural under discussion. Hume concludes then that virtues are divided for the purposes of his argument into two distinct categories; natural and artificial. Natural virtues Natural virtues are those which, according to Hume, occur naturally in man, natural dispositions or instincts which could occur in pre-societal humans, in small family groups with no organised government; self love, benevolence, charity, and many more, including some not usually mentioned; wit, good manners, and dialog. These natural traits could be classified as those needed to cooperate within small, personal groups and which are necessarily good and agreeable. They are essential, a part of ‘human nature’. Artificial virtues 2. Artificial virtues are constructed by humans, they deal with extra familial, impersonal situations, those where natural virtues might be compromised by bonds of family or friendship. These virtues include justice (the main focus of Hume’s discussions of artificial virtues), fidelity, honesty and chastity. They are social conventions that don’t necessarily result in good in each individual act and in fact may result in pain on an individual basis. Problems with artificial virtues There seem to be some problems with artificial virtues. The idea that justice is artificial as argued by Hume in EPM 3. 1. 2, seems flawed. Here he describes a world of abundance, where there is enough of everything, where it is warm enough not to require clothes, where every individual is fully provided for. In this ‘happy state’, claims Hume, ‘every other social virtue would increase tenfold; but the †¦ virtue of justice would never have been dreamed of’ (EPM 3. 1. 3). I am not convinced by this argument, it shows only that justice may be unnecessary in the idyllic circumstances described, not that it would not or could not arise. It is not artificial simply because it is not present in a particular situation. Hume appears to weaken his own argument later in EPM and even questions his own previous claims. In the footnote (EPM Appx 3. 9 fn 64) Hume’s language is not forceful or decisive, ‘In the two former senses (unusual and miraculous), justice and property are undoubtedly natural. But as they suppose reason†¦ confederacy among men, perhaps that epithet cannot strictly, in the last sense (i. e. artificial) be applied to them. ‘ In EPM Appx 3. 9 Hume poses the question that if self love, benevolence, reason and forethought are natural then cannot the same be said of justice, order, fidelity, property, and society, virtues he has previously listed as artificial. ‘Men’s inclinations,’, says Hume, ‘their necessities lead them to combine’. Even if we accept that in the ‘happy state’ these ‘necessities’ are minimal Hume still seems to be suggesting that men are inclined toward society and all that entails. He goes on to say ‘in so sagacious an animal, what necessarily arises from the exertions of his intellectual faculties, may justly be esteemed natural’. If that is the case then I see no reason why justice or society are special cases, and no reason why they would be judged differently to benevolence or self 3 love. They unquestioningly arise from our intellectual faculties and arguably arise necessarily, on Hume’s account they must surely be natural. A natural virtue must, according to Hume, occur naturally in man, be a natural ‘disposition’, and result in good. Given that man is inclined to combine, and that suppressing inclinations will result in pain (ECHU 8. 1. 23) and conversely enabling that inclination will result in pleasure, and further that in a ‘happy state’ justice is not impossible, only unnecessary, then it could be argued that justice is in fact a natural virtue. Even in the ‘happy state’ it is not difficult to imagine a situation where two people may wish for the same thing, a particular unique view or time spent with a particular person. Walking to your favourite view to find it occupied a person may well decide, as the other person was there first, that the just thing to do would be to leave them to it. Justice, and other artificial virtues, has a further problem. Hume claims that the the virtue of an action depends on the motive, rather than the action itself. Whether an action is judged virtuous is dependent on motive and that motive cannot be the virtue of the act itself. Being kind because it is virtuous to be kind is not virtuous. According to Hume, if I ‘restore a great fortune’ to a miser or the seditious bigot then society suffers. When I repay the miser I am acting out of duty or obligation, I do what I do, not through a virtuous motive but because it is the ‘right’ thing to do. If that is the case then it seems that justice may not be a virtue at all. Conclusion In describing the differences between natural and artificial virtues it becomes apparent that the distinction is not always clear. I have described how Hume explains the need to distinguish types of virtue and the criteria he uses. I have looked at the problems with Hume’s account in relation to the artificial virtues and established that, at least in the case of justice, they do not sit comfortably in a category separate from the natural virtues. The problem of the circularity may not only cause a problem with the distinction but may even suggest that justice is not a virtue at all. While this does not conclusively establish that the distinction does not stand it does show that it is not as firmly founded as Hume might claim.

Television, a Waste of Time And Money Essay

Television has become progressively more popular through the old ages since it was foremost invented. In fact it is so popular that about every place in America has one or more telecasting sets. Television started when Edwin Belin. an English adult male. held the patent for the transmittal of exposure by wire every bit good as fibre optics and radio detection and ranging. which demonstrated a mechanical scanning device that was an early ascendant to modern telecasting. With Television sets about everyplace in sight. a job with non merely the young person of America but besides affecting teens and grownups has erupted. As the popularity of Television increased so did the hours watched and hence. the rate of force sky rocketed. If the hours of telecasting exceed three hours a twenty-four hours the rate of force both seen and committed additions dramatically. In 1993. the mean kid was watching 8. 000 slayings and 10. 000 Acts of the Apostless of force before go forthing simple school ( Hepburn 244-249 ) . With all the picks of premium overseas telegram. HBO and many others. it’s non surprising that Television is lifting in monetary value excessively. Television has caused legion Acts of the Apostless of force and the statistics are still lifting. If the hours of telecasting are slimmed to less than an hr a twenty-four hours the violent Acts of the Apostless. will diminish. Many people watch telecasting as a everyday and mundane at about the same clip they will watch their favourite show or shows. Blending telecasting into your day-to-day modus operandi is non merely bad for you but sets aside precedences that are more of import like school work. Television draws in Families every dark About every household in the USA tickers premier clip telecasting ( 5-9 o’clock ) on hebdomad darks and with 99 % of families that own at least one telecasting. there are non many households that don’t watch Television on hebdomad yearss ( â€Å"Television† ) . In fact. surveies show that 66 % of U. S. places have three or more Television sets ( â€Å"Mediascope† ) . It is really dearly-won non to advert if you are in hunt to purchase the newest or biggest telecastings out at that place. Televisions non merely can set a strain on a household financially but with some households that watch up to or more than three hours of Television it can side track a household from its aims. During the 90’s each household averaged approximately 50 hours of telecasting weekly ( â€Å"Teen-agers† ) . Now come ining the new decennary the statistics have grown with the new types of telecasting since the 90’s. Once households start watching Television. it becomes a everyday that is non easy to interrupt. Many households are drawn to competition shows. where the whole household can take part and play along. The Steady Increase of Violence on Television Shows Television shows have become more violent in clip and it targets the young person and manipulates the kids to believe it is acceptable to perpetrate Acts of the Apostless of force. 59 % of force is shown on basic overseas telegram which is what most kids watch ( â€Å"Mediascope† ) . Children are really easy swayed to happening person to look up to. Many childs are into the â€Å"bad guys† and the strongest or most evil Television characters out at that place. When kids idolize characters on telecasting they are more likely to move the manner they do. 67 % of plans depict force in a humourous manner ( â€Å"Mediascope† ) . Showing the Acts of the Apostless of force in a humourous manner makes it look harmless to the kids. Childs who have premium channels on their telecastings are even more prone to perpetrating a violent act. Shows like HBO’s Oz. averaged 76 violent Acts of the Apostless per episode ( Hepburn 244-249 ) . Cartoons frequently depict at that place secret plans in a violent manner. Cartoons are a perfect illustration that shows how the young person of America is targeted at an early age. The major Television webs like Fox. CBS. and ABC play a large function in the rise of force across the state. Television webs like these. feel that force brings in the viewing audiences and the more viewing audiences the more money that the web makes. When Television was merely turning in popularity. the shows so were a batch different. Of class. there was still some force but really limited and no swear words or realistic particular effects. For illustration â€Å"Leave it to Beaver† and â€Å"Dike Van Dyke† which started in the 50’s. was non-violent and still popular plenty to draw in the viewing audiences get downing whole new tendencies. Today on the other manus. realistic effects to do horror scenes seem about existent have corrupted the populace. Shows like â€Å"CSI† and â€Å"Space Troopers† have legion violent Acts of the Apostless that are really in writing particularly to childs. The alteration through the decennaries has been great and more become more violent than of all time. What is to come in the hereafter? Will the force become even more vi olent? Or will at that place be a halt to the up rise in violent Acts of the Apostless all together? Television Effectss In the long tally. telecasting will impact non merely kids but teens and grownups excessively. With all the violent Acts of the Apostless seen on about every Television show the kids become frightened of the universe around them. â€Å"Eventually after watching all these offenses and violent Acts of the Apostless. the kids will be less sensitive to trouble and agony of others† ( Zuckerman ) . As most parents know. kids will make what they see. Many kids. non cognizant of what’s incorrect and right yet. will â€Å"mimic what they hear and see on TV† ( Zuckerman ) . It’s a parents occupation to watch over his or hers child and make certain they are non witnessing an inordinate sum of refuse or telecasting. presuming the parents are stable and non already addicted to Television. Statisticss show that teens ticker more telecasting than anything else that includes listening to music and reading ( â€Å"Mediascope† ) . Teenss are now in the old ages of re bellion against their parents and want to watch more mature shows that they can associate to. â€Å"Most adolescent prefer grownup scheduling that trades with turning up. drugs. sex and alcohol† ( Zuckerman ) . Teens that are stressed out by mundane things like school. classs and parents are more likely to watch Television every free minute they get. Television gives them a opportunity to loosen up and bury about day-to-day jobs and problems. Adults are besides portion of the rebellion in violent Acts of the Apostless committed due to the effects of telecasting. 76 % of typical violent culprits are grownups ( â€Å"Mediascope† ) . As we look around the violent universe we live in. it’s non flooring that all kids turn out as a deranged felon or liquidator particularly when kids look up to grownups for counsel. With the offense rates steadily increasing and telecasting in the hot place for the incrimination possibly a forbiddance of telecastings is in order. TV’s influence on the population Television affects everybody including childs. teens and grownups when they watch inordinate sum of Television each twenty-four hours. Parents should restrict there childs while they are immature so it’s non difficult to draw them away when they’re in their adolescent old ages. Today shots and slayings are more common than 20 old ages ago and no happenstance that the mean hours of telecasting a twenty-four hours have been lifting of all time since. Television makes existent slayings seem like nil to childs because they don’t yet understand the world from their Television universe. If the childs watch inordinate sums of Television when they are truly immature. they will respond to what they saw on Television when they are in a crisis or job in there life. when they grow up. Television is one of the negative effects of engineering and detecting new things. â€Å"Our findings suggest that responsible parents should avoid allowing their kids to watch more than an hr of Television a twenty-four hours. † ( Hepburn 244-249 ) . Hepburn besides stated â€Å"I was surprised to see a five fold addition in aggressive behaviour from less than one hr to three or more hours† ( Hepburn 244-249 ) . The universe with telecasting does non travel manus in manus any more. With force quickly increasing. the offense rates rocketing. it’s lone clip before there’s no more Television or people left. Television. in the terminal These big doses of telecasting are shown by the offense rate of today. Children who watch more than three hours of Television a twenty-four hours are really likely to perpetrate a violent act with in their life. Television will likely be about for a really long clip and it is the parents that are responsible for how much clip their childs ticker. Parents are non to be blamed wholly but there is a good portion that does rely on them to steer their childs the right manner and restrict the hours of Television they watch mundane. Jennifer Zuckerman claims â€Å"parents are responsible on how much Television is allowed and what stairss should be taken† . If you watch your kids and bound there hours of Television a twenty-four hours there is a good opportunity that the child will be less likely to be involved in a violent act. Television is normally a consequence of ennui. a clip to loosen up and non make any physical work. 73. 5 % of people watch Television when they are non making any thing ( â€Å"Television† ) . Television is a major cause of the bulk of violent Acts of the Apostless committed in the last few old ages. The lone manner for a lessening in the nation’s force is to restrict the sum of telecasting we watch and to restrict the kids from big sums of telecasting. If the rise of force still increases at a steady velocity. the lone manner to halt it is to either travel to the manufacturers or convert the people to turn on telecastings and take them from their places. Plants Cited Hepburn. Mary A. â€Å"TV Violence! A Medium’s Effectss Under Scrutiny. † Social Education. Sept. 1997: 244-249. SIRS Researcher CD-ROM. CD-ROM. SIRS Mandarin. Fall 2002. â€Å"Mediascope. National Television Violence Study. † Executive Summary. 1994-1995: N. P. SIRS Researcher CD-ROM. CD-ROM. SIRS Mandarin. Fall 2002. â€Å"Teen-agers Who Watch More Television are Prone to Violence† . The Seattle Times. March 28. 2002: N. P. SIRS Researcher CD-ROM. CD-ROM. SIRS Mandarin. Fall 2002. â€Å"Television Violence: A Review of the Effectss on Children of Different Ages† . Science 1995 ; N. P. Zuckerman. D. â€Å"What is to Blame for Youth Violence? † 21. March. 2003. World Wide Web. surgeongeneral. gov/library/youthviolence

Analysis Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 1

Analysis - Coursework Example It may not generally be not difficult to confirm optional information in examination, however every exertion must be made keeping in mind the end goal to demonstrate the validity of the sources being utilized as a part of any exploration. On the off chance that solid and faultless, optional information give chances to replication. The accessibility of information gathered at times empowers researchers to utilize longitudinal outlines. Optional investigation may enhance the legitimacy of estimation by stretching the extent of the autonomous variables utilized when operationalzing real ideas. By utilizing secondary information, we can build the specimen size, its representativeness, and the quantity of perceptions elements that help more incorporating generalizations. Secondary information could be utilized for triangulation, accordingly expanding the legitimacy of the discoveries acquired from essential information. The most genuine issue in utilizing secondary information is that the information regularly just deduces the sorts of information that the specialist might want to utilize for testing theories. A second issue is access. A third issue may develop if the researcher has deficient data about how the information was gathered. Slips in scope imply that an individual or a gathering is either not numbered at all or is checked twice. Copy tallies are less genuine than undercounts. Blunders in substance happen at whatever point data is erroneously reported or classified. The Internet is a "web" of machines joined together by method for phone lines. A "site" is the electronic location of one of these machines. A server is a program in your PC that directs the site electronically, empowering you to enter the framework. The Internet is an open framework and is accessible to all, free of charge. Disintegration measures are the signs left after utilization of an item; for instance, the wear on library books is a

Questions on Human Rights Article Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Questions on Human Rights - Article Example For example, there are people with Down syndrome and still are able to perform everything logically. The same is the case of some people with mild forms of Autism. It is worth remembering that famous Winston Churchill who played an unforgettable role in the World War II and as a historian was dyslexic. In addition, Isaac Newton probably had Asperger’s syndrome. However, one cannot deny the fact that most mentally retarded ones are just like children, and hence are unable to make rational decisions. So, one can argue that as far as children are not allowed to vote, the same principle can be used in the case of mentally retarded people too. Thus, in total, one is forced to reach the conclusion that a lot more specifications are required to gauge the degree of retardation in individuals so that an accurate answer can be reached based on the kind and degree of retardation. Otherwise, the ones who are evidently retarded need not be allowed to vote. II There is still intense debate on the issue whether women should be allowed to serve in combat. In fact, women are gradually getting more and more roles in the military avoiding the combat frontline. However, in the case of women infantry, task crew, and combat pilot, there still remains a taboo. Those who are in favor of women’s role in active combat frontline argue that if women show enough physical capability and mental alertness to serve in the combat frontline, denying them a chance amounts to rank hypocrisy. Another point favoring women is that in the modern battlefield, technical expertise and decision making are more important than raw physical strength. The third point is that being forced to play secondary roles is a fact that keeps many patriotic females from joining military. So, by allowing them to have equal opportunities, their presence in the military can be ensured. This is all the more important considering the fact that the presence of women is inevitable for certain tasks like medical a ssistance, policing, intelligence gathering, and mediation. However, there are allegations and claims from the other side too. The first is that though a minority of females manages to show enough physical capacity to join combat, the vast majority ‘miserably fails’ (Willens and Smith). So, the claim that females should be allowed to serve in combat is on shaky grounds. Secondly, the so called courageous females allege sexual harassment in the hands of masculine military subculture. So, the argument is that incorporating females into the force can only lead to more problems and tension in the force, leading to a decline in morality of the men. This will seriously affect the quality of the force in group activities. In total, it becomes evident that there is no base for the argument that females should not be allowed to serve in combat. So, a reasonable conclusion is that the few females who show enough physical capabilities, courage and desire to serve in combat should be allowed to do so. III One can undoubtedly say that the perfect form of freedom allow people to do whatever they like if that only affects their own lives. If this is the case, not allowing people to sell their own organs is a denial of this basic right, according to many. This is so because ones organs are ones own property that one has the right to do anything with. Yet another point is

Plan for Establishing a Career Development Function HRD 420 Research Paper

Plan for Establishing a Career Development Function HRD 420 - Research Paper Example In this discussion, I will provide comprehensive information concerning my plans for the development of career function in the Transliners Company. I am a Human Resource Manager at a Company known as the Transliners; it is a transport Company that offers the Public local transportation services by use of Buses and Cars that are hired. The Company also transports luggage and other goods; I have conducted substantial research and found out that the transportation business is a very crucial and sensitive sector that requires personnel with properly developed careers. This will be the first step I will take in the development of the careers of the employees at the Transliners Company. It shall involve identification of the available capacities, knowledge and skills that are currently possessed by the employees (Rouda 2008). This assessment shall be undertaken through different five imperative steps involving: Conducting a gap analysis study which will provide data on available and lacking pertinent career development aspects. The second stage under needs assessment will be identification of the Company’s interests as well as the priority and the need for career development among the employees. Consequently, the third step will encompass identification of the possible employee performance challenges that may arise due to poor career planning. This step shall be followed by, undertaking a comparison by finding out future challenges that may occur among the employees if the career development function is not conducted. Finally, I will communi cate my findings to the top managers on the importance of a proper career development function in the Company. This shall involve the identification and evaluation of new ideologies, skills, experiences and knowledge that various employees possess and those that they would like to acquire. The objective of formulating the goals shall be driven by several questions such as:

Law & Social Control Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Law & Social Control - Essay Example Further in the article Marx (1981) outlines the theories connected with the role of authorities in establishing the deviance which he calls â€Å"ironies†. Marx (1981) describes situations in which social control generates rule-breaking behavior and divides them into escalation, nonenforcement and covert facilitation. In discussing these types of social control, Marx (1981) uses mainly examples from criminal justice to make his point. In escalation, authorities unintentionally trigger rule-breaking by taking enforcement actions. The best example to depict the escalation type of situation is police involvement in family conflict. Police interference in interpersonal conflicts seems to lead to further violence, acting as â€Å"a breeding ground† for aggressive and provocative response. In nonenforcement, authorities contribute to deviance in more indirect way than in escalation. Here institutions prefer not to take enforcement actions and by this they intentionally permit rule breaking. Marx (1981) says that nonenforcement is the most difficult to identify, because this strategy is illegal and authorities often try to hide it. An example is given by the informant system, which is a major source of nonenforcement, though it plays crucial role to many kinds of law enforcement. Called a form of institutionalized blackmail, the informant system helps informants to avoid prison, or to receive reduced sentences. However, the informant source assists the police in arresting criminals which will not be caught with other means. Covert facilitation represents taking deceptive enforcement actions through which authorities intentionally aid rule breaking. Marx (1981) calls this passive nonenforcement. Social control agents may infiltrate into certain structures and buy or sell illegal goods, victimize others or seek prostitutes in a tourist disguise. Covert facilitation

Cost, Volume, and Profit Formulas Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Cost, Volume, and Profit Formulas - Essay Example The preferable outcome in most businesses is to sell as many units as possible, thus high volumes are preferable. The selling price is the unitary price of each product. It can be calculated by dividing the total sales by the amount of units sold. If a company had sales of $5,000 and it sold 100 units the unitary price is $50 per unit. There are two types of costs. These two types of costs are variable costs and fixed costs. A variable cost can be defined as a cost of labor, material, or overhead that changes according to the change in the volume of production units (Investorwords, 2011). Variable cost per unit can be calculated dividing total variable costs by the quantity of units sold. The second type of cost is fixed costs. Fixed costs are costs that do not change with the volume of sales. The total amount of fixed costs is the same every month. Some examples of fixed costs include rent, managerial salaries, and depreciation (Moneyterms, 2011). The total fixed expenses component is calculated by adding up all the fixed costs of the company. The sales mix is the relative proportion in which a company’s products are sold (Garrison & Noreen, 2003).

British Film Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

British Film - Research Paper Example This determination was fueled by his strong-minded mother, an out-and-out teacher, as well as his own courage and determination to overcome his physical disability. The History of the Film The Irish culture and its local setting is shown and is depicted in the conduct and actions of different characters. Apart from the physical struggle of Christy, the story also appeals to the audience emotionally, physically and psychologically. The film appeals to audiences in a way show how one can overcome a serious handicap to achieve life goals. It reveals the complexity of man, able to overcome physical disability and severe speech impediment. Christy displays a fighting spirit and intelligence throughout the film in all situations despite his lack of ability to communicate. The film begins with a setting in which Christy has been invited to a home of a wealthy sponsor, and he is given a nurse to look after him until he appears on stage. The nurse sees him with a book and is fascinated with i ts title My Left Foot, and she begins to go through it chapter by chapter. As she reads it, she discovers the life story of Christy in a flashback. The nurse however discovers that Christy is humorous, despite his background that is affected by poverty. Christy mumbles inarticulate comebacks to his father’s dinner table in a pestering manner. Christy appears not interested in many things around him but he in happy when his brothers and sisters laugh, however his father appears confused. Christy was unable be concerned with anything at all in his life and is he developed a keen interest in painting as he prefers to listen to his mother. The doctor is seen physically outside his locked bedroom and is closely whispering about Christy. However, even further than the humor Sheridan permits the hard won joy in Christy’s story. The unusual scene is where the family watches as the young at the age of five hold a piece of chalk with his toes and makes letter A. At this stage, C hristy is discovering a way of expressing himself to others, as he could not speak as a normal child. Christy later writes the word mother on the floor with a piece of chalk. This is observed quietly and sensitively as the scene reveals a real sense of completion at the end of such a pleasing surprise. In the film, the local Irish society in which Christy is born is depicted as poor and somehow genuinely religious but at times considers the handicapped as something serious. Throughout his early days, Christy played with local children and his brothers and sisters. The neighbors at times make attempts to play with Christy openly although he has not learned to speak or how to express himself. The family and the whole community of Christy is seen having deep ties to one another and are final extremely proud of Christy. His father’s is seen as a good father in his family. However, the father is at times harsh and often quarrels his children, despite himself being truly devoted to his family and their needs. The connection between mother and son runs throughout the story from its very beginning. The heavily pregnant demonstrate her love to Christy although she is alone in the small house; she struggles to carry the disabled son upstairs to his sleeping-room. She later agrees with him to keep the money meant to buy him a good

International law Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

International law - Essay Example ........................................................................................ 6 State Practice...................................................................................................... 7 Hierarchy of sources........................................................................................... 8 International trade and development.................................................................. 8 Conclusion...................................................................................................................... 10 References...................................................................................................................... 11 Main Sources of International Law Introduction International law is the primary governing authority in the management of international affairs. It includes laws and provisions which indicate standards by which states can interact with each other. These provisions also provide processes which are mandated for states to follow in relation to territorial, political, social, and economic relations. The commonly known source of international law includes the legal provisions passed by the United Nations and its General Assembly. However, other laws also make up the overall international statutes which help ensure the peaceful and efficient relations of states and other international actors. Although these statutes are often difficult to implement due to the inherent independence of states, sanctions are nevertheless forthcoming for violators. This paper shall outline and explain the main sources of international law. It will evaluate these sources in terms of their significance and importance in promoting the growth and development of international business and trade. This study will initially discuss the different sources of international law. An evaluation of these sources shall also be carried out and associated with the development of international business and trade. This paper will be discussed in order to provide an academic evaluation of international laws and provisions with the end goal of guiding the future evaluation of international activities and actions of states and business entities. Body Overview of sources of international law The sources of international law would include the materials and provisions where the standards and principles managing states and international actors are established (Jennings and Watts, 1992). These sources are based on various political and legal principles. In the 19th century, the concept of pacta sunt servanda was recognized, mostly as a means of limiting sovereign power and authority (Jennings and Watts, 1992). This homogeneous perspective of international law was apparent in the 1920 Statute for the Permanent Court of International Justice, and further specified under Article 38(1) of the 1948 provisions on the International Court of Justice (ICJ) (Malanczuk, 1997). Article 38(1) is acknowledged to be the most enco mpassing provision indicating the sources of international law (Koskenniemi, 2000). This article calls for the International Court to use international conventions which are expressly acknowledged by other states and international customs as general practices supported by the law. To prevent non liquet, where no law would apply, the article also mentions that general principles used by the courts are those which have long been supported and used by civilized countries (Koskenniemi, 2000). Since states are the ones which give their consent and which

Analysis of Wallow's Character in Haunting of Olivia Essay

Analysis of Wallow's Character in Haunting of Olivia - Essay Example embarrassed to admit that he doesn’t see any ghosts† (Russell). From this line, the reader has an understanding that these are minds of young children who think they can find the ghost of their long-gone sister. Whether ghosts exist or not is a subject worth of discussion by those who believe in their existence. As the story develops, it is revealed to the reader that Wallow aged fourteen and his brother (the narrator) has been having numerous trips to the lake shore in search of their dead sister (Russell). They repeatedly scavenge through the boats at the shore with the hope of having a glimpse of their dead sister. The reader is able to notice the bully nature of the elder brother through the younger brother, who says, â€Å"On land, Wallow’s a loutish kid. He bulldozes whatever gets in his path: baby strollers, widowers, me† (Russell). These lines gives the reader an understanding of the kind of character Wallow sometimes retrieves into when he feels th at he has all it takes to be a bully. This also explains why he drives the brother in search of the sister’s ghost. From the story the reader is also able to comprehend that the parents of the two children have resumed travelling to third world countries since the death of their daughter. This is because they feel the sons are grown enough to take care of themselves. As the story comes to an end, the reader understands that nothing positive comes out of the brothers’ search for their sister’s ghost. ... In reference to the bullish nature of Wallow, the reader understands that in absence of constant care by the parents, the elder brother will always want to be protective of his younger brother. Character Traits of the Story’s Characters The character of Wallow in the story â€Å"Haunting of Olivia† is caring. As an elder brother, and at fourteen years of age, he protects his brother, who is twelve, because the parents are rarely with them (Russell). When they are scavenging the boats to find anything of value, the reader discovers that Wallow remains in control and keeps watch for the safety of both of them. This can be seen when he says to his brother: â€Å"All right, bro,† Wallow says. â€Å"It’s go time.† He takes my elbow and gentles me down the planks with such tenderness that I am suddenly very afraid. But there’s no sense making the plunge slow and unbearable...† (Russell). Moreover, Wallow is imaginative about nature and supers titious. He refers to the anniversary of his late sister as â€Å"unbirthday†. Since the sister died on that material day, he feels that it is her unbirthday. The reader knows that this cannot be termed as unbirthday. Wallow says, â€Å"†¦that means that tonight is Olivia’s unbirthday, the anniversary of her death† (Russell). The imagination and superstition in these lines is revealed from the fact that Wallow thinks that the opposite of birthday celebration is unbirthday. This is in reference to death anniversary of Olivia. Moreover, by believing that Olivia’s ghost is in existence and they ought to look for it, it is an act of superstition. Ghosts are not things that exist but they arise out of

Temporary Assistance to Needy Families Program Essay Example for Free

Temporary Assistance to Needy Families Program Essay The Temporary Assistance to Needy Families (TANF) program was a direct response to overhaul the image of welfare programs. In 1996, it replaced such programs as Aid to Families with dependent Children (AFDC), the Job Opportunity and Basic Skills training program (JOBS) and the Emergency Assistance Program (EA). The objective of TANF was to implement useful policies from the previous three programs and present an effective welfare plan based not only on needs but presentation of policies that involved job preparation and improving conditions for work and a stable marriage (About TANF). The goals of this program are further summarized including assistance to needed families so that the children can be cared for at homes, promotion of social opportunities, prevention of out-of-wedlock pregnancies and encouraging the maintenance of two parent families. To achieve its objective, the US government adjusted the system to be administered through various State, territories and tribal agencies instead of a direct supervision by the Federal government. The primary reason for such a decision was to distribute the program funding in a more effective manner and hold each regulating body responsible for fulfilling the objectives of TANF. For this very purpose, the TANF Bureau was formed which comprises of five separate divisions including a Division of State TANF Policy dedicated to role out policies and guidance; Division of State and Territory TANF Management to provide technical assistance; Division of Data Collection Analysis that deals with the statistical analysis of the collected data; Division of Tribal TANF Management which deals with all aspects of tribal matters pertaining to the program and TANF Bureau Regional Program Units that provides technical and management links between the State and other administration blocks. Difference in Policies What differentiates this welfare program for its predecessors is the fact that TANF ends the open ended requirement of AFDC for automatic assistance but instead provides grants based on work requirements for a majority of recipients. It also initiates a time limit for the distribution of grant in order to stop the otherwise ineffective distribution and dependence on State’s funding. Under a unified umbrella of policies, TANF has implemented different policies to better answer the critics of welfare system by designing new rules for qualification and introducing time constraints to prevent future generation from such grants by helping them gain financial freedom. Almost every aspect of old system is challenged by proposing new policies for child care, legal immigrants, food stamp program and Supplementary Security Income. While TANF is not a perfect program but it will not be an oversimplification to state that the wide ranging implications of introducing new and useful policies are much better than the previous stand-alone program. Although, it should well be recognized that TANF is basically just another system of a perceived welfare State that is America but it definitely provides future policymakers a model for improvements in the existing TANF and related welfare programs. Benefits One of such benefits under TANF is eliminating homelessness for people who are in desperate need. It is important to note that most participants who used to get homelessness assistance in previous programs without restrictions are not eligible under TANF. For a person to take such assistance, TANF requires that the benefits allotted to a participant must be designed to deal with crisis situation and it must only be for four months. Such rules provide credence to the idea that the State funds will not be over utilized by mass and if work conditions improve for homeless people, they would be able to better equip themselves after four months. To critics, it must be evident that TANF do provides legislations where certain people are indeed eligible for long term ongoing assistance with the housing that can extend beyond five years but it too instructs participants to actively involve in work and assign their child support rights to the State. These provisions are in exclusion to the other basic requirements for TANF. There are numerous States and related agencies that have successfully implemented the homelessness program to allow their residents settle down. Almost half of the States are providing short term assistance to people needing short term rental assistance, support for a solution to eviction and utility shut off (Jennifer, 2001). These also include emergency housing shelters as well as temporary shelter. Looking objectively into such type of assistance we can draw conclusions that the State is supporting the idea of a true welfare State by not relying on using welfare money solely for homelessness but instead distribute grants to a variety of aspects that may not have a stigma of welfare related to them. Drawbacks On the contrary time limits and such constraints do provide sustenance to the cause of TANF but it is clear from several studies including the of Urban Institute that there is a constant need for regular upgrading of the program. According to the statistics, more than 50 percent of the participants who have received welfare in the past are now working in low income jobs without any benefits at all. Still more concerning are figures which indicates that most of the parents who received funding and were able to find work have now been laid of due to the economic recession and high unemployment rates. This act has resulted in their ineligibility to receive any more funding from the program for another five years (Temp Assistance). Therefore, the committee recommended that there should be a clean long term extension of the prevailing laws so that families in need of welfare should not only be depended on welfare but rather be able to support themselves in the long run. Official Public View of the success of TANF Some of the States such as District of Columbia are trying to establish a coherent program by involving public in its annual budget meetings. Such a meeting took place in March 2009, where members of the public provided their opinion on how to better administer the funds. From the public remarks, it seems that there is a wide held belief that any welfare should not just be a temporary relief but supplement the future of the participant. The director of Human Services which oversees the DC TANF program was of the view that their TANF program should bring the people in workforce and support them to be self sufficient before taking them off welfare (Greg). His remarks were coherent with the level of TANF assistance and funds didn’t rise with inflation which has made it difficult for the participants to support their children. The committee further states that the State budget didn’t take into account COLA which has resulted in less aid than actually perceived. Experts now believe that the Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act PWRORA that was introduced in 1996 is becoming a success but such a success can only be retained with constant evaluation and new policies (Turner J). In a testimony before congress in 2002, Jason Turner, responsible for domestic policy making at Heritage Foundation pointed out there was an urgent need to strengthen work requirements because the participants at that time were able to receive full funding without actively engaging in their quota of work. He insisted that the policies be made more stringent by requiring participants to come to work and cash be distributed based on the actual hours worked and not the perceived time. Furthermore, he provided evidence that the budget of TANF program can be reduced to 10 percent without disrupting all the useful funding. Such recommendations by public representatives is a clear indication of the theories as presented by social scientists who want to see a true Welfare State based on the principles of equality and opportunity. In a series of reports published by the Urban Institute, the authors proclaim that TANF’s emphasis on work has improved results for million of families but there is a need for a long term broader perspective on the issue. One such study extol the Program benefits only if Congress can reauthorize the implementation of the new policies that has made it difficult for some hard to serve groups to take full advantage of the program structure. It points out the fact that the most common employment barriers for individuals who stay on welfare or leave without work are poor health lack of recent work experience and access to higher education. The numbers provided were three years after PWRORA initiation but provided staggering figures constituting almost 35 to 50 percent of the program participants being affected (Loprest Zedelewski). Program Implementation It is a fact that various territories and tribes can not only participate in the program but are eligible to run it on their own management principles. While it is true, another report by Urban Institute submitted to the Department of Health and Human Service concluded that there were several factors which were feasible for the implementation of TANF in the tribal areas. Such factors included improvement of TANF objectives and outcomes, extension of tribal self determination, enhanced program coordination and improvement of reputation and image (Just Harvest Publications). On the other hand, it also concluded that costs, staffing problems, risk of new program and communication with State and Counties were barrier to the acceptance of such a program. The TANF is definitely a step towards realizing the goal of a true Welfare State where meaning of welfare is not imbedded in perceived images nor attributed to poor class. While it is true that there are shortcomings in the program but such limitations can adequately be addressed by constant debates, changes in policies and regular reauthorization of TANF. In his book, The Assault on Social Policy prominent social scientist William Roth describes a well balanced welfare program as the one that only provides a limited support thus promoting a desire to work (Roth, W: p. 64). In fact such a policy would have been appreciated by Michael Katz who was a fervent supporter of a welfare plan which doesn’t’ portray beneficiary as a recipient of welfare but instead someone who has the right to receive aid to support their families.

The Future of Japans Economy

The Future of Japans Economy Where will Japan be in 20 years? SUMMARY Long-term economic forecasting is still as difficult as ever. Typical previous long-term forecasts have proved to be on average out by as much as 33%. In the present day unsettled political and economic climate forecasting economic future of a country has become even more difficult. Japan‘s economy declined during 1998-2003 period, making the economic pundits wonder if Japan would be able to revive its economy. Significant growth during the last two years shows that Japan’s economy cannot be written off that easily. Japan has many economic factors supporting the likely hood of Japan’s continued economic growth over the next 20 years. On the other hand emergence of China as the third largest economic power, its increasing share in world economy, Japan’s declining working population, huge domestic debt, rising energy prices and unstable world politics could jeopardize the economic growth. Japan need to modify its tax structure and reduce the burden of debts. Recent elections over the decision on privatization of the postal system shows that Japan is prepared to make tough decisions to keep its economy on track. It appears that Japan is already preparing to be a part of the success of the newly emerging economic superpowers. The inter-dependence of the economies will ensure that Japan will continue to make economic progress. An economic development rate of 1.8% over the next 20 years appears to be certainly achievable for Japan. INTRODUCTION The post war years allowed Japan to concentrate on economic development. With nearly no defense expenditure, Japan was able to devote nearly one third of its GNP to investments during 1953-63 [Angus Madison, 2005]. The government policies of investment in education, industry and research and development started bearing fruit and the average annual growth rate during 1960s remained around 11% per annum. The government policies favored encouraging savings, promoting investments, supporting newly emerging industry and promoting exports. Between 1965 and 1970 average growth rate was 11.1% (Financial statistics of Japan, Ministry of Finance, 2005) GDP Growth in real terms** GDP Growth % 1960 8.8 1965 9.2 1970 11.1 1975 4.5 1980 2.8 The steady growth rate of almost 10% per annum helped Japan overtake Federal Republic of Germany in terms of GNP by 1968 to become 2nd only to United States of America. The 1973 oil crisis came as an economic shock to Japan. The second oil price increase of 1979 meant that the oil prices which were around $12.75 a barrel in 1974 increased nearly by 300% to $34 a barrel in 1981 [Nakamura, 2005]. Japan, being almost totally dependent on imported oil reacted quickly by adopting a policy of monetary constraints and improved its energy efficiency to stay competitive and the decline in exports in 1980-2 were recovered by 1984 proving that Japan has the ability to bounce back. The two decades following the Japan’s meteoric rise were the years of globalization. 1980-2000 were the years when the economic development suffered a slow down all over the world. [Weisbrot et al, 2001] call it the period of diminished progress. The 2nd oil price increase of 1979, globalization and flow of capital to third world countries and economic mismanagement have all been blamed for the decline [Weisbrot et al, 2001]. The IMF figures of real per capita GDP (in constant 2000 US$) shows that when compared to 1960-80, almost in all cases per capita GDP declined during the two decades 0f 1980-2000. For the top GDP bracket (which includes Japan), the annual rate of GDP growth fell by 1%. Reference: [Weisbrot et al, 2001] In this global period of economic decline, Japan’s economic also went through a period of recession. When everyone was expanding Japan to continue the economic miracle, Japan’s economy had to face a number of financial crises, some of which in the hindsight appear to be of their own making. [Agarwal, 2004] believes that the liberalization of financial system, the deregulation of banking sector, interests and capital flows were carried out without proper assessment of their impact on the domestic financial markets. Many financial institutions came to the verge of bankruptcy and most of these had to be bailed out to prevent an economic crisis. Some analysts [in Agarwal Agarwal, 2001] believe that unlike United States which stepped into to save the economy from ‘Savings and Loan’, Japan’s Ministry of Finance failure to intervene and making the financial institutions sell their assets to account for hundreds of billion dollars worth of non performing loans is responsible for the economic crisis of Japan during the 1990s. In addition to the financial problems and banking sector near insolvency, the economic experts identified Weak economic activity, low productivity and high prices as some of the reasons for stagnation of economy. Japan’s dwindling working age population means that there will be fewer workers available for economic activity. The domestic financial policies, a reduction in exports due to a global economic down trend resulted in an average growth rate of 1.7% during 1990s [CIA Economic Report, 2005]. In the aftermath of September 11 crisis, the slowing down of US, European and Asian economies has not helped the export based Japanese economy and during 2000-3 Japan’s economy stagnated during this period. During the first half of 2004 Japan’s economy began to show the sign of recovery. It was the first time that the economic figure gave reason for optimism for Japan’s economy during almost a decade; Japan declared a growth rate of 5.25% (seasonally adjusted annual figure). This figure was largely due to the new economic factors now emerging in the world economy, the fast growing Chinese economy. Slower growth in domestic machinery demand and reduction in orders from China resulted in an overall growth rate of 2.25%. Suddenly the economic pundits have become extremely optimistic about Japan’s economic growth in the forthcoming years. The earlier estimates of 3.4% growth for 2005 have now been upgraded by International Monetary Fund (IMF) to 4.5% [IMF Predicts, 2005]. Economics believe that due to pressures of being a democracy, Japan chose not to make hard choices; the banks were forced to hide the non recoverable loans and were obliged to throw good money after bad to appear to be solvent. The government borrowed heavily from the public and now the debt stands at 160% of GDP [CIA Economic Report, 2005]. Japan opted to ignore the option of writing off bad debts and using inflation to overcome the problem and used monetary tactics of accumulation of capital, which to most economist has cost them a longer than expected period of economic decline. The position now is that the banks are in a strong financial position and are generally solvent. The economic recovery from now on can be expected to be on a sound footing [Jerram, 2004]. ECONOMIC FORECASTING The science (or Art) of forecasting the economic future of a country especially a long term forecast is still an uncertain art. The parameters required for the input can and do change over the forecast period. [Artis, 1996] analyzed the economic forecasts error in pre-1983 and post-1983 period to show that the forecasting has not significantly improved during the two periods. While the economic parameters for most of the developing countries are not available in the required detail, for the developed countries it is normally not a major problem, yet the accuracy of the forecast varies by about 1% which is almost 30% out when we recognize that actual growth rate is around 2.75% [The difficult Art of Forecasting, 1996]. It has to be appreciated that some of the factors involved in economic growth are so unpredictable that they cannot be possibly included in economic forecasting, factors such as oil price shocks, unification of two Germany, September 11 terrorist attack, natural disaste rs like floods in New Orleans and Kashmir earthquakes cannot be factored into economic forecasts. The error of 1% in predicting economic trends is an average, in many cases IMF and OECD have been quite accurate in their predictions and the economic forecasting continues to have the confidence of economic planners to use it as a basis of international business as well as for providing planning information to the national economies. METHODOLOGIES OF ECONOMIC FORECASTING [Clements and Henry, 2002] and [Mizon, 2002] present excellent reviews of economic forecasting techniques. [Clements and Henry, 2002] give a detailed explanation of statistical modeling and techniques for generating forecasts. Reasons for errors in macroeconomic forecasts are also covered as also are methods of evaluating forecasts generated by different methods. The reasons for forecast failure are explained in a non-technical language by [Hendry Ericsson, 2001]. [Arsham, 2005] is an excellent reference manual available online for economic forecast modeling. The Forecasting method covered by [Arsham, 2005] include Economic Indicators, Economic Projections, Compound Growth Rate, Time Series Projection, Time Series using Ordinary Least Square (OLS) Method, Visual Time Series Projections, Forecasting with Smoothing Techniques and Forecasting with Econometric Models. JAPAN ECONOMY IN 20 YEARS Japan’s economy has overcome the difficulties of the last decade. The growth rate from 2004 is expected to be a healthy 3%. In 2004 Japan achieved a growth rate of 2.25%. The IMF forecast for 2005 and 2006 is an economic growth rate of 4.5%. The worse appears to be over but for future economic growth, Japan has to ensure that its national debt is reduced, the impact of demographic factors is minimized and its exports and overseas production interest are maintained. DEMOGRAPHIC FACTORS One of the major factors being identified as potential hazard to future economic development of Japan is its aging population. Japan has an excellent health care system. The life expectancy in Japan is among one of the highest in the developing countries. According to the population statistics 20% of Japan’s population is now 65 years or over. The problem is that the Japan’s population is not being replenished by the new births at the required rate. The fertility rate has dropped to 1.3 children per woman which is well below the replacement level. The concern that Japan’s economy weakened by the recession of more than a decade may be overburdened by the problems of manpower shortage, paying old age benefits to the high percentage of senior citizens. The labor force is likely to shrink by 0.7% [Campbell, 2003] a year between 2000 and 2025 and may well seriously effect the economic development during the next 20 years. The problem is that the life style Japanese have got accustomed to does not encourage child bearing to have the hope of making up the present shortfall in foreseeable future. A survey of Japanese women showed that only 7% of Japanese women saw child bearing is a satisfying experience compared to 60-70% women in other countries [Campbell, 2003]. This means that Japan’s population is likely to continue its trend of declining working age group and an increasing population of 65 years and over. The fiscal implication of the aging population would require a change in the pension system. The present system of pay-as-you-go would mean that â€Å"pure aging effect on public finances for 2000 to 2030 could be debt equal to 190% of 2000 GDP [ ] The United Nation Population Development calculations estimate that if the present situation does not improve, by 2025 Japan will have an average age of 50 years. The population of 65 years and over will be 30% of the total population. The NUPD paints a bleak picture where due to decline in birth rate the proportion of children under 15 will be the same as those of people 80 years and over. This is stark statistics indeed and there is no doubt that Japan will have to take steps to encourage population growth rate to around 3% per annum. However, most social scientists believe that this doom day forecast can be avoided. In the near term Campbell [ ] argues that the gradual decline rate of 0.7% is manageable and the economy can cope with this without undue strain. Campbell [ ] contends that older people will not be a burden on state, the pension premium for the working population may have to be increased to support the pension schemes but it is unlikely to impede the economy. He points out that United States spend 13% of GDP on health care while Japan spent 7.8% for providing a better degree of health care to its population. Usui [ ] believes that women are still not participating in the economy to the extent they could and in case of labor shortage they would play a more active role in the labor market to remove the labor shortage. She also points out to the useful role senior citizens play in upbringing of their grand children releasing parents for a more active economic role. The population growth rates can thus be achieved without removing women from the workforce for an extended period. The demographic dilemma is certainly a cause for concern for Japan’s economy but it appears that Japan will be able to cope with the shortage during the next 20 years. Japan has not been very receptive to the ‘guest workers’ for meeting its manpower requirements but a future shortage may change that situation. Increased productivity, late retirement, more participant of women in work force and possibility of using foreign workers are some of the options that can be used to meet the manpower requirement of the economy. Japan has the highest number of robots in use in the world [CIA Report on Japan Economy, 2005, the automation is another solution to the manpower shortage. However, the real solution in the long term is to encourage population growth through incentives and child support. Negative population growth is a problem in many developed countries and solutions are being found to prevent it from holding the economic development. CHINA AS AN ENGINE FOR JAPAN’S ECONOMY Japan’s economic miracle was greatly helped by the exports to United States. As Japan’s economy developed it was able to find additional partners in Middle East, Europe and in developing countries. The global economic decline during 1980-2000 reduced the pace of economic development in Japan. China’s ‘economic miracle’ during the last few years has been largely responsible for the revival of Japan’s economy. India is also posting impressive economic growth rate during the last few years. Japan’s technological advantage, its competitiveness and its participation in ASEAN places Japan in an advantageous position in helping develop these economies [News Item, 2004]. The recent revival of Japan’s economy has in part been attributed to its exports to China. At present the main exports to China are of high-tech parts. Many of the Japan’s giant corporations are building new facilities in Japan to make products for China and other markets. China has made tremendous progress since a change in its political system. Its foreign trade has grown by double digits for many years. China is now the third largest trading country in the world and its exports to United States were around $150 billion last year putting China ahead of Japan in the list of countries exporting to USA [Herman, 2005]. Many observers believe that this might be a threat to Japan’s economy. But China and Japan, at least for now see this as a window of opportunity for developing their economies. China needs Japan’s technology and Japan recognizes China as an opportunity to reduce its production costs by using cheap labor available in China. China will perhaps welcome Japan’s investment even more than investment from US as Japanese investment does not come with a dose of speeches urging China to reform its political system! China is encouraging direct investment from developed countries and Japan has already built plants in Japan to lower its labor costs and stay competitive in the international markets. Japan-China cooperation in the economic filed appears to be in the interest of both countries. China has an advantage in labor costs and for the foreseeable future China will need the advance Japanese technology to meet its development goals. China is now the second largest market for Japan’s export and it appears that for the next decade or two China- Japan trade will continue to grow for their mutual benefit. China’s GDP of $1.7 trillion is only 13% of that of United States and about one third of that of Japan [Wang, 2005]. China has a population of more than a billion and it is clear that the scope of development in China is enormous. After China agreed to the one-country two-system policy and Hong Kong came under its political control, countries like Singapore, Korea and Japan built considerable production facilities to China to benefit from the cheap labor costs. Hong Kong, of course being a political part of China moved many of its labor intensive industries to China. This has benefited China in boosting its exports. It has been estimated that 60% of Chinese export in 2004 came from the foreign invested enterprises. The profits of Japanese enterprises in China, of course benefit Japan too. It is clear that both China and Japan are using trade to each other’s advantage. What is not well known is that China is not only the fastest growing market for Japan but also for the United States. The Kyoto protocol agreed to keep India and China out of the developed countries list and as such they are not expected to limit green house gases. Although United States has also not agreed to the Kyoto Protocol, it appears that Chinese economy can continue to develop, at least for the time being without the worries for limiting green house gases. Absence of application of Kyoto Protocol would also be advantageous for Japanese companies working in China. JAPAN’S DEBT AND FUTURE DEVELOPMENT The total debt of Japan is nearly 160% of its GDP [CIA Economic Report on Japan, 2005]. Most of Japanese debt is however internal. Us Foreign debt is already approaching the internal debt of Japan and it has been estimated that by 2010 US will owe as much to the international lenders as Japan owes to its internal lenders, Japanese people. Although the difference in economic sizes of the two countries is enormous and it is not correct to compare Japan and US on the same economic scale but it does give us an idea that the debt that Japan built during the recession years may not hold it from future development. The demography, the huge debt problem and rise of competitive China are some of the factors Japan will have to contend to make economic progress. As the editorial in Rediscovering Japan Dec 2003 said that with the revival of Japan’s economy economic pundits are once again discovering that Japan has the competitive strength to bounce back. The editorial said that that Japan is still the world second largest economy and it has streamlined itself to meet the emerging challenges from Korea and Japan. It urges US CEOs to be not influenced by media misperception and to take Japan seriously. Japan is far too important to be ignored, it said. THE ECONOMIC FORECAST FOR NEXT 20 YEARS The Editorial from Rediscovering Japan is perhaps the best note to conclude this article. Japan has the potential to develop and compete with the new emerging economies; it had the ability to become energy efficient to stay competitive after the energy crisis of 1973 and 1979 and the new energy prices will probably be more of a headache for gas guzzling economies of the west. Japan has invested in its people and while other countries might build plants to manufacture Japanese cars for the present, Japan has the foresight to invest in the research and development for energy efficient vehicles possibly electric to stay ahead of the competition. [Suzuki, 2004] presented medium term economic forecast for Japan (2004-2010), estimating the economic development rate to remain in the range of 2% per annum. Their forecast is however based on an oil price estimate of $28 per barrel, which we now know is more than twice that. Their assumption regarding improvement in export was also rather conservative. The economic forecasting is poor in estimating up and down turns. Suzuki analysis had projected 2% growth rate for 2004 and 2005, which was actually 2.25% for 2004 and 4.5% estimated for 2005. [Kosai and Ito, 1999] estimate that the economy growth rate for the period 2000-2025 will be 1.8% and as the economic forecast for such a long period of a habit of being out by an average 1% we can safely expect Japan to develop during the next 20 years. Japanese have proved themselves capable of meeting economic challenges presented to them. No one would have believed that Japan had the capability of bouncing back from the ravages of the 2nd World War and develop to an extent where it is seen as a threat to the other economies. One thing is certain Japan is too important to be ignored and is likely to remain so for the next 20 years and beyond. WORK CITED Agarwal, J. D., Globalization and International Capital Flows, Keynote Address at the National Conference on Globalization Decadal Indian Experience, Kannur University, Kerela, India, 17th January 2004 Agarwal, J.D. and Agarwal, A. (2001), Liberalization of Capital Flows, Banking System Trade: Focus on Crisis Situations, International Review of Comparative Public Policy Volume 13, pp. 151-212. Angus Madison, Economic Growth in Japan and the USSR, 2005, http://www.mail-archive.com/[emailprotected]/msg06027.html Arsham, H., Time-Critical Decision Making for Business Administration, http://home.ubalt.edu/ntsbarsh/stat-data/Forecast.htm Artis, M. J., How Accurate Are the IMFs Short-Term Forecasts? Another Examination of the World Economic Outlook, IMF Working Paper 96/89 (August 1996) Campbell, J. C., Population Aging: Hardly Japan’s Biggest Problem, Asia Program Special Report No 107, January 2003, Woodrow Wilson Asia Center for Scholars. CIA Report on Japan Economy, retrieved from Internet on 16 November 2005, http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/ja.html#Econ Clements, M.P. and Hendry, D.F., (eds.) Companion to Economic Forecasting, Basil Blackwell, 2002 Eberstadt, N., Power and Population in Asia, retrieved from Internet on 16 Nov 2005, http://www.policyreview.org/feb04/eberstadt.html Financial Statistics of Japan, Ministry of Finance, 2005, http://www.mail-archive.com/[emailprotected]/msg06027.html Hendry, D.F. and N.R. Ericsson (eds.) Understanding Economic Forecasts, MIT Press, 2001. Herman, S., Chinas Economic Might Makes Japan Nervous, retrieved from Internet on 16 Nov 2005, http://www.voanews.com/english/archive/2005-01/2005-01-17-voa7.cfm?CFID=8078384CFTOKEN=86056847 IMF Predicts Rosy Economic Growth for Japan, retrieved from Internet on 16 November 2005, http://www.bizasia.com/economy_/becd7/imf_predicts_rosy_economic.htm Jerram, R., This Time it’s Different: Japan Poised for Growth, The International Economy, Spring 2004 Kosai, Y., and Ito, Y., A New Start for Japan’s Economy: The Path Towards Balanced Growth to the Year 2025, Jan 1999, http://www.jcer.or.jp/eng/eco/98long.html Mizon, G.E., (2002) `Review of Probability Theory and Statistical Inference: Econometric Modeling with Observational Data by Aris Spanos, Economic Journal, 112, F164F166 Nakamura, T., The Postwar Japanese Economy, http://www.mail-archive.com/[emailprotected]/msg06027.html News Item, Chinese scholar suggests axis with India, Japan, May 19, 2004, retrieved from Internet on 16 Nov 2005, http://www.rediff.com/news/2004/may/19axis.htm Suzuki, H., Japan’s Economy through 2010, Daiwa Institute of Research Limited, March 2004 The Difficult Art of Forecasting, World Economic Review, International Monetary Fund, 1996 Usui, C., Japan Aging Dilemma? Asia Program Special Report No 107, January 2003, Woodrow Wilson Asia Center for Scholars. Wang, R., China’s Economic Growth: Source of Disorder? Foreign Service Journal, May 2005 Weisbrot, M., Baker, D., Krav, E.and Chen, J., The Scorecard on Globalization 1980-2000, Twenty Years of Diminished Progress, Center for Economic and Policy Research, July 2001

Renaissance in 12th Century Culture and Thought

Renaissance in 12th Century Culture and Thought How appropriate is the label renaissance, when applied to twelfth century thought and culture? Introduction During this essay we shall be exploring the period of the Twelfth Century in Europe. We are concerned with the extent to which this period, which was one of extraordinary social, economic, and political change, with profound developments in thought and culture can be considered a Renaissance. First it is necessary to examine the true meaning of the label ‘renaissance’. What are the most important features of a renaissance that mark it out from other periods of time? In the first part of our work we shall attempt to define the parameters of what a ‘renaissance’ is. The Second part of our work will examine the historic background of the Twelfth Century. We shall briefly examine the most important developments during a period that has done much to shape the modern world, including the rise of humanism, the individual, the reform of the Church, the creation of Universities and the development of legal codes throughout Europe. Why was the Twelfth Century such an important period in medieval history and did these profound changes and developments constitute a renaissance in the manner of the renaissance of the 15th Century? In our final Chapter we will present the case that using the term ‘renaissance’ for the Twelfth Century is misleading, unsuitable and inappropriate. Although the twelfth century was extremely important, with profound developments in many fields, this does not necessarily make it a ‘renaissance’. Many historians would also argue that applying such labels is detrimental to the study of history; in this chapter we will examine some of their arguments. In our conclusion we will conclude on whether it is accurate, useful or appropriate to apply the term ‘renaissance’ to the Twelfth Century. The term ‘renaissance’, or re-birth is usually associated with the Italian Renaissance in the 14th and 15th Centuries which later spread throughout Europe.[1] This period saw a revival in classical texts and sources of knowledge in a variety of fields, mathematics, law, philosophy, art and education to name but a few. Educational reform spread these ideas throughout Europe, leading to developments in knowledge, technology and agriculture, as well as social changes which saw a population shift to towns and cities.[2] In essence renaissance is referring to a revival, in this case the classic texts and teachings of the Ancient Greeks. It is generally accepted by historians today that there were several ‘renaissances’ in Europe, in the Ninth, Twelfth and 14th Centuries, where increased access to classical texts and other social factors led to artistic, technological and social developments throughout Society.[3] When referring to the Twelfth Century Renaissance most historians mean the period between 1050 and 1250, and unlike the early period of the later Renaissance, developments happened throughout Europe and did not begin in one region or Country.[4] Chapter One The Twelfth Century was arguably one of the most important in medieval times, if not in the whole of European History. The rediscovery of many Latin and Greek texts following the fall of the Greek Empire and increased contact with Islamic scholars led to an increase in scientific knowledge, and to developments in all intellectual fields. The Twelfth Century saw great advances in technology, which combined with a warmer climate and greater stability led to an agricultural surplus, an improved quality of life and new opportunities. This more dynamic European Society invented spectacles, paper, developed the use of gunpowder, more accurate clocks and printing methods.[5] For a period the Latin and Greek texts were simply re-produced by an increasing number of European Scholars. Gradually once all these works were discovered and thoroughly absorbed, many Scholars began to build upon this knowledge and adapt it for contemporary use, no more so than in the field of law. Roman law and a revival of jurisprudence spread throughout Twelfth Century Europe, replacing traditional, custom based law and helping create stability. One of the best examples of this was in Henry II of England’s legal reforms. Like in many parts of Europe trial by ordeal or battle was still common, and the application of the Kings justice was not uniform throughout his British territories. Henry II established trial by jury and set up magistrate courts so that his representatives could administer legal rulings on his behalf. This was the beginning of the Modern day justice system, it made the legal system fairer and helped establish the authority of the Church and State throughout Europe.[6] The artistic pursuits flourished during the Twelfth Century, the fields of poetry, architecture, music, and literature all developed greatly. This was partly a result of the increased wealth and security in many parts of Europe, but it was also an indication of the self confidence, creativity and curiosity of a more dynamic European Society eagerly absorbing new sources of knowledge from the Latin and Greek texts, the Islamic and Byzantium worlds.[7] This artistic revival also had some links to the more humanist philosophies and teachings from the great Twelfth Century scholars and teachers. Humanist thought also developed in the period around the Twelfth Century, and many academics, such as Morris, believe that the Twelfth Century saw the beginnings of the discovery of the individual and the origins of rational thought.[8] The rise of the individual led to a wider interest in self expression, human relations and self discovery, it was a point when man became interested in the positi on of the individual in relation to Society and its institutions.[9] This apparent rise of rational thought however did not coincide with a decline of the powers of the Church. Indeed during this period the Christian Church went through a period of dynamic reform, strengthening its influence and power to a point where the Pope would attempt to exercise power and influence over Monarchies and Empires. It was Innocent III, a proponent of both religious and secular legal codes, who called for a Crusade against the infidels in 1198, and he who made the English King John his vassal.[10] The Twelfth Century remained a period of faith where to even question whether there was a God was considered madness. How then was the knowledge gleaned from the classical Greek and Latin texts disseminated throughout Europe? The establishing of Universities in places such as Paris, Oxford and Bologna was perhaps one of the greatest events of the Twelfth Century. Students from all over Europe travelled to these centres of learning, and helped to spread their new scholastic thought and ideas back to their homelands.[11] The Universities not only helped to re-introduce classical knowledge back into Europe but helped build upon and adapt the works to better serve the very different European Society that they inhabited, a Society that was rapidly changing and beginning to explore the world outside the European frontiers. We have established then that the period of the Twelfth Century, which for many academics means 1050-1250, was a period of great economic, social, political and religious change. In our next chapter we will argue that the label Renaissance is worthy of such a profoundly important era. Chapter Two The Twelfth Century did indeed contain many of the features that defined the 15th Century Renaissance in Italy. The discovery of Latin and Greek texts allowed for great advances in the scientific, social, political and legal fields as well as other intellectual pursuits. After the long process of absorbing the vast array of texts, Twelfth Century Scholars built upon that knowledge just as some of the great Italian minds in Florence did several hundred years later. The adoption of Roman legal canons and the revival of the arts are two examples of a European re-birth a fundamental change in Society for the better inspired by the classical works.[12] If anything the Twelfth Century was perhaps even more open minded than its later Italian Renaissance, adopting and learning from cultures previously regarded as heathens and heretics. A Renaissance cannot be defined simply as an interest in classic texts or the adoption of some aspects of ancient Intellectual ideas into Society. The Italian Renaissance was a flowering and development of ideas that were inspired by classical texts and sources. The Twelfth Century saw rapid developments in virtually every intellectual pursuit as a result of the re-discovery of Latin and Greek texts. It helped lead to the rise of new towns and helped spread vernacular literatures. As Haskins demonstrates it was in many ways the early beginnings of the modern world, surpassing the achievements of the authors of those ancient texts. ‘It saw the culmination of Romanesque art and the beginnings of Gothic, the revival of the Latin classics and of Latin poetry and Roman law: the recovery of Greek science, with its Arabic additions, and of much of Greek philosophy: and the origin of the first European universities.’ Another main feature of the Italian Renaissance is the spread of humanist ideas and philosophy. We have previously demonstrated that Humanist thought and philosophy flourished in the Twelfth Century, and the origins of the Individual, an important Western concept, arose in this period of intense intellectual change and development. The supremacy of the Church was not challenged, but a philosophy of rationality and of valuing the human spirit that so defined the Italian Renaissance and indeed the later Enlightenment flourished in the newly created schools and Universities of Twelfth Century Europe.[13] It is irrelevant to compare the relative contributions of each Renaissance in a bid to establish which is more important or which period contributed more to the formation of modern, secular Europe. We are merely concerned with whether the label ‘renaissance’ is a suitable label for the Twelfth Century. Academics such as Haskins and Brooke do clearly believe it was a Renaiss ance and have given clear evidence to support their claims.[14] In our final chapter we will examine the theories of other academics who argue that it is neither appropriate nor relevant to describe the Twelfth Century as a Renaissance. Chapter Three For many historians, such as Panofsky and Chenu, it is inaccurate to describe the Twelfth Century as a true ‘renaissance’.[15] There are several different reasons for this approach. Scholars like Panofsky believed that although Latin and Greek works were re-discovered and that this led to a degree of development, the change was limited to a small range of Intellectual pursuits. Although many in the Twelfth Century imitated the texts and borrowed some of their teachings, they failed to truly appreciate the fact that the ancient world was a completely different culture from their own, their understanding of the works and of the time itself was limited and narrow and unlike the scholars, artists and philosophers of the Italian Renaissance they did not seek to return to classical age or change the society in which they lived, merely adapt some classical teachings to suit their environment.[16] Other historians are not quite so dismissive of the huge range of achievements in the period around the Twelfth Century, and historians like Chenu recognise the importance of the era whilst believing that the label of renaissance does not do the period justice. The engine of artistic, economic and political growth was not the re-discovery of the Latin and Greek texts but the improving economic and social conditions. The true re-birth was the revitalization of the Christian Church, which inspired a new hunger for learning, discovery, and invention and created an atmosphere in which the ancient texts could be adapted to improve the conditions of a newly invigorated Christian Society which was increasingly placing rationality and reason at the heart of its teachings. The Twelfth Century was a unique, profoundly important era that should be studied in its own right, not as a mere pre- Renaissance but an age that helped usher in the beginnings of Modern Western Society.[17] Conclusion In conclusion then, how appropriate is the term ‘renaissance’ to describe Twelfth Century thought and culture? This essay has demonstrated that the Twelfth Century was a period of momentous social, economic, political and religious change. Those developments had a major impact in shaping the modern Western World. Increased prosperity and security created new opportunities and a seemingly universal desire for learning and advancement led to new inventions, the formation of new institutions and the adoption of philosophy which facilitated the rise of humanism and the individual as the centre of Western thought. The contribution of classic Latin and Greek texts cannot be underestimated, the knowledge revealed and subsequently built upon spurred developments in medicine, law, philosophy, technology, theology and art. Unlike the Italian Renaissance Twelfth Century men did not hark back to the ancient times, nor did they wish to re-order Society, merely make it better, more Ch ristian and more humane. It is our conclusion then that using the label ‘renaissance’ for this period is useful in initially expressing the profound importance of this period both in Medieval history and in the effect it has had on the development of Western culture itself. Through its usage we demonstrate that the 14th and 15th Century Renaissances were not as unique as many historians would have us believe, and that the so called dark ages were not the continuous period of ignorance and backwardness so often imagined. But the Twelfth Century is more than a pale imitation of the Italian Renaissance, it is a period of time worthy of separate study and analysis, in the future it maybe that Society will regard this period as the true Renaissance and the later Italian period a development on the achievements and work of a dynamic, original and inspired Century. Bibliography Benson R L Constable G (eds.), ‘Renaissance and Renewal in the Twelfth Century’ (Cambridge Mass., Harvard University Press, 1982, 1991). Brooke C N L, ‘The Twelfth Century Renaissance’ (London, Thames Hudson, 1969) Chenu M-D, ‘Nature, Man and Society in the Twelfth Century ‘(Chicago, Chicago UP, 1968, 1997) Constable G, ‘The Reformation of the Twelfth Century’ (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1996). Cook W R Herzman R B, ‘The Medieval World View: An Introduction’ (Oxford, OUP, 1983) Duby G, ‘The Europe of the Cathedrals’ (Geneva, Skira, 1966) Haskins C H, The Renaissance of the Twelfth Century (classic) (Cambridge Mass., Harvard UP, 1927) Hollister C W, ‘The Twelfth Century Renaissance’ (New York NY, Wiley, 1969) Holmes U T, The Idea of a Twelfth-Century Renaissance Speculum 26 (1951) Morris C, ‘The Discovery of the Individual 1050-1200’ (Toronto, Toronto UP, 1987) Packard S R, ‘Twelfth Century Europe’ (Amherst Mass., Massachusetts UP, 1973) Panofsky E, ‘Renaissance and Renascences in Western Art’ (New York NY, Harper Row, 1970) Southern R W, ‘Medieval Humanism and Other Studies’ (Oxford, Blackwell, 1970, 1984) Stiefel T, ‘The Intellectual Revolution in Twelfth Century Europe’ (London, Croom Helm, 1985) Swanson R N, ‘The Twelfth Century Renaissance’ (Manchester, Manchester University Press, 1999) Treadgold W (Ed), ‘Renaissances before the Renaissance: Cultural Revivals of Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages’ (Stanford Ca., Stanford UP, 1984) Trevor-Roper H R, ‘The Rise of Christian Europe’ (London, Thames and Hudson, 1965) Wolff P, ‘The Awakening of Europe’ (Harmondsworth, Penguin, 1968, 1985) Footnotes [1] Ferruolo, Stephen C, ‘The Twelfth-Century Renaissance’ in Treadgold W (ed), Renaissances Before the Renaissance: Cultural Revivals of Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages (Stanford Ca., Stanford UP, 1984) p.114 [2] Haskins C H, The Renaissance of the Twelfth Century (classic) (Cambridge Mass., Harvard UP, 1927) p.5 [3] Cook W R Herzman R B, The Medieval World View: An Introduction (Oxford, OUP, 1983) p.212 [4] Swanson R N, The Twelfth Century Renaissance (Manchester, Manchester University Press, 1999). [5] Packard S R, Twelfth Century Europe (Amherst Mass., Massachusetts UP, 1973) [6] Haskins C H, The Renaissance of the Twelfth Century (classic) (Cambridge Mass., Harvard UP, 1927) pp193-224 [7] Brooke C N L, The Twelfth Century Renaissance (London, Thames Hudson, 1969) [8] Morris C, The Discovery of the Individual 1050-1200 (Toronto, Toronto UP, 1987) [9] Ferruolo, Stephen C, ‘The Twelfth-Century Renaissance’ in Treadgold W (ed), Renaissances Before the Renaissance: Cultural Revivals of Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages (Stanford Ca., Stanford UP, 1984) p.126 [10] Cook W R Herzman R B, The Medieval World View: An Introduction (Oxford, OUP, 1983) p.203 [11] Stiefel T, The Intellectual Revolution in Twelfth Century Europe (London, Croom Helm, 1985) [12] Hollister C W, The Twelfth Century Renaissance (New York NY, Wiley, 1969) [13] Ferruolo, Stephen C, ‘The Twelfth-Century Renaissance’ in Treadgold W (ed), Renaissances Before the Renaissance: Cultural Revivals of Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages (Stanford Ca., Stanford UP, 1984) pp122-132 [14] Brooke C N L, The Twelfth Century Renaissance (London, Thames Hudson, 1969) [15] Chenu M-D, Nature, Man and Society in the Twelfth Century (Chicago, Chicago UP, 1968, 1997) [16] Ferruolo, Stephen C, ‘The Twelfth-Century Renaissance’ in Treadgold W (ed), Renaissances Before the Renaissance: Cultural Revivals of Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages (Stanford Ca., Stanford UP, 1984) p116 [17] IBID, P.134